Letter Writing (Formal)

Guidelines

• Follow the format correctly.

• Language in the content should be formal, correct and appropriate.

• The approach while writing should be humble and clear.

• Prefer small and simple sentences.

• Keep the content brief and to the point.

• Use three paragraphs in the content.

Summary Writing

Guidelines

• Give a suitable title. (1-3 words)

• Title is compulsory.

• Write the gist / main ideas of the given passage in approximately four sentences.

• Use the key words given in the question. (if any)

• Use only one paragraph.

• Don’t use examples.

• Don’t repeat the same idea.

• Use third person narrative.

• Don’t use unnecessary words or phrases like, ‘The passage is about..., the writer says... ‘

• Use brief and compact sentences.

Mind Mapping

Guidelines

• Use the format correctly

• Write the main topic in the middle /centre of the page

• Decide the layout and prepare the mind map

• Add ideas and points as per the requirement

• Show branching as per the flow of the information

• Use only words and phrases in every bubble or box

• Draw multiple levels of branching instead of clubbing the information at one point

• Close all the points by circling or boxing them (use any shape and write the points inside)

• Use around 9 (+title) points preferably at 3 levels

Mind Mapping Format 

An Example

Note Making

Guidelines

• Use the format mentioned in the question.

• Decide the layout and prepare the note. Or

• Copy the incomplete note/diagram from the question. (if any)

• Complete the diagram by adding important details from the given passage.

• Underline the points you have added.

• Don’t use sentences. Use only words and phrases.

• Number the points if necessary.

• Use punctuation effectively to reduce the writing.

Types of notes

1. Note in point form / linear form

2. Tree diagram

3. Table

LIST OF WRITING SKILLS for XI and XII std. (As per the new syllabus, implemented from June 2019)

1. Note-Making (only for XI std.) and Mind Mapping 

2. Summary Writing  

3. Formal Letter  (only for XI std.) 

4. Email  

5. Expansion of an Idea 

6. Blog Writing  

7. Review Writing  

8. Appeal / Leaflet / Flyer 

9. Report Writing  

10. Compering

11. Speech  

12. Interview Questions  

13. Dialogue Writing  (only for XI) 

14. View – Counter View (only for XI std.) 

15. Virtual Message  (only for XII std.) 

16. Statement of Purpose  (only for XII std.) 

17. Group Discussion  (only for XII std.) 

Grammar topics useful for correction of the errors

#Collocation – Some pairs of words are always used together in English. The pairing is not replicable. It can be a noun +noun, adjective + noun, noun +verb, verb + preposition or any such combination 

Ex. If weather permits, we can go for a picnic. (Not allows) 

Ex. Strong coffee, commit - crime/sin/suicide, make - mistake, handsome payment, kith and kin, power nap, congratulate – on, heavy snow, unique creation, home appliances, office staff, house keeping, sky walk, nail polish, mouth watering, rash driving, speak fluently, feel deeply, read rapidly, prematurely born, gently touched etc. 

#Verbs of perception – The main verbs associated with the five senses and the natural functions of brain are called as verbs of perception. They are normally not used in ‘-ing’ form or any type of continuous tense if used for their original meaning. ‘Can’ is used to show that it’s current activity if necessary. (Ex. See, hear, smell, feel, taste, know, believe, understand etc.) 

Ex. I can hear some noise from outside. (Not, ‘am hearing’) 

Ex. I can smell something burning. (Not, ‘am smelling’) 

Ex. I know her from her childhood. (Not, ‘am knowing’) 

#Verbs of possession – The main verbs showing possession are generally not used in ‘– ing’ form or continuous tense. 

Ex. I have an excellent collection of books. (Not, ‘am having’) 

If clause – The ‘if clause’ cannot be in future tense of any type. It can be in simple or perfect tense.

Ex. If I am free, I will join you for the movie. (Not, ‘if I will be free...’)             

Question Tag

A question tag is a small question that is attached or ‘tagged’ to the end of a sentence.

Question tags are most often used in spoken language to confirm something that is said and also to encourage the listener to give an answer. A question tag is added to a sentence to seek confirmation of the statement.

In the added part, the helping verb or the auxiliary verb used in the sentence is used in the tag. If the statement is positive or affirmative, the question tag should be negative, and if the statement is negative, the question tag used should be positive. If a pronoun is used as the subject, use the same pronoun in the question tag. If a noun or a noun phrase is the subject in the statement, use a pronoun based on the gender/number in the question tag.

Examples:

• You are happy, aren’t you?

• You aren’t happy, are you?

• They were waiting for her, weren’t they?

• The students should accompany their parents for the meeting, shouldn’t they?

• You have a pair of shoes, don’t you?

• He teaches Chemistry, doesn’t he?

• Harry and Ron played tennis, didn’t they?

Questions:

Add a question tag to the following sentences and rewrite them.

1. Sunaina is our new leader.

2. They have confirmed the information.

3. Arun and Varun are on their way to the airport.

4. Her father is a doctor.

5. The baby elephant that fell into the well was rescued by the locals.

6. Arranging transport and accommodation for the guests had been their first priority.

7. You like cookies.

8. Bring me some tissue papers.

9. They bought a new LED television.

10. You have been looking for an apartment.

Answers

1. Sunaina is our new leader, isn’t she?

2. They have confirmed the information, haven’t they?

3. Arun and Varun are on their way to the airport, aren’t they?

4. Her father is a doctor, isn’t he?

5. The baby elephant that fell into the well was rescued by the locals, wasn’t it?

6. Arranging transport and accommodation for the guests had been their first priority, hadn’t it?

7. You like cookies, don’t you?

8. Bring me some tissue papers, will you?

9. They bought a new LED television, didn’t they?

10. You have been looking for an apartment, haven’t you?

Transformation of Sentences (Use of ‘as well as’, ‘either – or’, ‘not only – but also’)

#Use of ‘as well as’, ‘either – or’, ‘not only – but also’

Ex. He is a prolific writer and voracious reader. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only - but also’.) 

Ans. He is a prolific writer as well as voracious reader.

Ans. He is not only a prolific writer but also a voracious reader. 

Ex. He will join us tomorrow otherwise next week. 

Ans. He will either join us tomorrow or next week. 

Exercises for practice:

• Industrial revolution gave people opportunity to work and earn more money. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only – but also’.) 

• Migration was required for their safety and better future. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only – but also.) 

• They were fighting for equal rights and respect in society. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only - but also’.) 

• You will get lucrative salary or work - life balance. (Use either – or and rewrite the sentence.) 

• The winners were given cash prizes and certificates. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only - but also’.) 

• You can help me or complete your own project. (Use either – or and rewrite the sentence.) 

Answers:

• A) Industrial revolution gave people opportunity to work as well as earn more money. 

B) Industrial revolution gave people opportunity not only to work but also earn more money. / Not only did Industrial revolution give people opportunity to work but also earn more money

• A) Migration was required for their safety as well as better future.  

B) Migration was required for not only their safety but also better future.

• A) They were fighting for equal rights as well as respect in society. 

B) They were fighting for not only equal rights but also respect in society.

• You will either get lucrative salary or work – life balance. 

• A) The winners were given cash prizes as well as certificates.

B) The winners were given not only cash prizes but also certificates.

• You can either help me or complete your own project.

Transformation of Sentences (Change of Part of Speech)

Q. Change the part of speech of the underlined word and rewrite the given sentence. 

Ex. Many people were freed from the jails. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun form of the underlined word.)

Ans. Many people were given freedom from the jails. 

Exercises for practice:

• I like to discuss various issues. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun form of the underlined word.) 

• The doctor gave a detail clarification of the doubts. (Rewrite the sentence using the verb form of the underlined word.)

• His behaviour made her angry. (Rewrite the sentence using the verb form of the underlined word.) 

• They invented many useful things. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun form of the underlined word.)

• They coloured the dots black. (Rewrite the sentence using the verb form of the underlined word.)

• He was successful in completing the project on time. (Rewrite the sentence using the adverb form of the underlined word.)

• He did all his work honestly. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun form of the underlined word.)

Answers: 

• I like to discuss a variety of issues.  

• The doctor clarified the doubts in detail. 

• His behaviour angered her.

• They made inventions of many useful things.

• They blackened the dots. 

• He successfully completed the project on time. 

• He did all his work with honesty.

Transformation of Sentences (Frame a ‘wh’ question)

Q. Frame a ‘wh’ question which will have the underlined part of given sentences as answer. 

Ex. There are 100 peacocks in the garden. 

Ans. How many peacocks are there in the garden? 

Exercises for practice:

i. People like to be praised for their good work. 

ii. Instructions were written in five languages. 

iii. The Identity cards were distributed on Monday. 

iv. They decided to meet at the cafe. 

v. Rajani respected her grandfather for his principles and values. 

Answers 

i. What do people like? 

ii. In how many languages were the instructions written? 

iii. When were the identity card distributed? 

iv. Where did they decide to meet? 

v. Why did Rajani respect her grandfather? /What did Rajani respect her grandfather for? 

Use of ‘too’ and ‘enough’

• ‘Too’ means more than enough.

• ‘Enough’ means as much as required.

• ‘Too’ and ‘enough’ are adverbs giving added information about the adjective in the sentence.

• ‘Too’ is used before the adjective and usually has a negative meaning.

• ‘Enough’ is used after the adjective and has a positive meaning.

• ‘Too’ or ‘enough’ can be replaced with ‘so – that’ structure. Negative word is used while replacing ‘too’ to balance the meaning in ‘so – that’ sentence.

• Can / could / do /does/ did/will is used in the ‘so – that’ sentence as per the meaning of the sentence while converting a too/ enough sentence.

Ex. 1. He is too old to work now. (Remove ‘too’ and rewrite the sentence.)

Ans. He is so old that he cannot work now.

2. She is wise enough to behave appropriately in such situations. (Remove ‘enough’ and rewrite the sentence.)

Ans. She is so wise that she behaves/ can behave appropriately in such situations.

Exercises for practice:

Q. Remove ‘too’ / ‘enough’ and rewrite the sentences.

1. Mohan was too shocked to react to the incident.

2. Raju is kind enough to help the needy.

3. Maya was too shocked to notice the damage of her car after the accident.

4. Girija is too shy to perform on the stage.

5. Reshma is smart enough to solve all the questions correctly.

Answers:

1. Mohan was so shocked that he could not react to the incident.

2. Raju is so kind that he helps the needy.

3. Maya was so shocked that she could not notice the damage of her car after the accident.

4. Girija is so shy that she did / could not perform on the stage.

5. Reshma is so smart that she can solve all the questions correctly.

Q. Use ‘too’ / ‘enough’ and rewrite the sentences.

a. He was so slow that he could not complete the race.

b. Sonia was so tired that she did not care about her work.

c. Ronald is so sensitive that he understands other people’s feelings.

d. It was so dark that no one could see anything.

e. The room is so small that 10 people cannot sit there comfortably.

      Answers:

a. He was too slow to complete the race.

b. Sonia was too tired to care about her work.

c. Ronald is sensitive enough to understand other people’s feelings.

d. It was too dark to see anything.

e. The room is too small for 10 people to sit there comfortably.

Degrees of Comparison

There are three degrees of comparison in English 

1. Positive 2. Comparative 3. Superlative 

They indicate the level of the adjective in comparison to others. 

Meaning and tense should be retained in the conversions. 

Exercises for practice: 

(Change the degree) 

1. No other city in the world is as vibrant as Mumbai. 

2. Mona is the most popular girl in college. 

3. Amitabh is the fittest man among the men of his age. 

4. Roshani is not as caring as her elder sister. 

5. They are better than their competitors. 

6. Most of the kids are not as disciplined as Raju. 

7. This is the most attractive offer of the year. 

8. This year the prices are not as low as last year. 

9. My school days were one of the best days of my life. 

10. My parents are the most liberal parents in the world. 

11. This place is not as amazing as the places I have seen so far. 

12. Ronak is better than any other employees in the office.

 

Answers

1. Mumbai is the most vibrant city in the world. /Mumbai is more vibrant than any other city in the world. 

2. No other girl in college is as popular as Mona. /Mona is more popular than any other girl in the college. 

3. No other man of his age is as fit as Amitabh. /Amitabh is fitter than any other man of his age. 

4. Roshani’s elder sister is more caring than her. 

5. Their competitors are not as good as they are. 

6. Raju is more disciplined than most of the kids. /Raju is one of the most disciplined kids. 

7. No other offer of the year is as attractive as this offer. /This offer is more attractive than any other offer of the year. 

8. Last year the prices were lower than this year. 

9. Only a few other days of my life are /were as good as my school days. Not many days of my life were/ are better than my school days. 

10. No other parents in the world are as liberal as my parents. /My parents are more liberal than any other parents in the world. 

11. The places I have seen so far are more amazing than this place. 

12. No other employee in the office is as good as Ronak. /Ronak is the best employee in the office. 

Active – Passive Voice

 Passive voice is used when... 

We don’t know who is the doer of the action or 

It’s not important to know who is the doer of the action or 

The action happened is more important than the doer of the action or 

When the focus is on the outcome or the result and not the doer of the action or 

When the object is more important than the subject

 Active voice is used when... 

The subject / doer of the action is important 

 Sentence structures

Active voice: Subject + verb phrase + object /complement +.... 

Passive voice: Object + helping verb + form of ‘to be’ if any + main verb in the 3rd form/ ‘- en’ form/ perfect form + by + subject +... 

Rules of conversion 

• If there are two objects in the given active voice sentence, it is preferable to use the indirect object (living) as a subject in the passive voice sentence. 

• Change the form of the pronoun interchanging the subject and object during the conversion. Ex. I = me, he = him etc. 

• Main verb in passive voice is always in perfect form/ - en form 

• Use the following information for verb phrase conversion into passive voice 

#Simple Present Tense = am/is/are (Helping verb in passive voice) 

#Simple Past Tense = Was/were (Helping verb in passive voice) 

#Present Continuous Tense = Am/is/are (Helping verb in passive voice) + Being (Form of ‘to be’ in passive voice)  

#Past Continuous Tense = Was/ were (Helping verb in passive voice) + Being (Form of ‘to be’ in passive voice)  

#Present Perfect Tense = Have/has (Helping verb in passive voice) + Been (Form of ‘to be’ in passive voice)  

#Past Perfect Tense =Had (Helping verb in passive voice) + Been (Form of ‘to be’ in passive voice)  

#Future tense or Modal Auxiliary sentence = Will/ shall/ can/ could/ may/ might/ must/... etc. (Helping verb in passive voice, whichever is used in active voice) + Be (Form of ‘to be’ in passive voice)  

Exercises for practice: (Change the voice.) 

1. Roma helped the children by funding their education. 

2. Rajan gave them a lot of work to complete. 

3. They helped each other to overcome the problems. 

4. Rakesh did not invite Suresh for the party. 

5. They decided it on their own. 

6. Manali supported Arjun during the difficult phase of his life. 

7. Leena trained the kids to solve their difficulties on their own. 

8. Many activities were planned for the children. 

9. Many solutions were rejected due to the limitations in implementing them. 

10. Well calculated risks reduce the possible damage. 

Answers

1. The children were helped by Roma by funding their education. 

2. They were given a lot of work to complete by Rajan. / A lot of work was given to them by Rajan to complete.

3. They were helped by each other to overcome the problems. 

4. Suresh was not invited for the party by Rakesh. 

5. It was decided by them on their own. 

6. Arjun was supported by Manali during the difficult phase of his life. 

7. The kids were trained by Leena to solve their difficulties on their own.  

8. They planned many activities for the children. 

9. They rejected many solutions due to the limitations in implementing them. 

10. The possible damage is reduced by the well calculated risks.  

Prepositions

 

The words which are used to show connection or relation between two things, people etc. are called Prepositions.

Types of Prepositions 

1. Prepositions of time 

• At – to show a definite point of time 

Ex. Let us meet at 7 pm. 

• On – to show more general period of time 

Ex. I met her on Friday. 

• In – to mention months, year, seasons or parts of the day or to mention the period of time in future when some action will happen 

Ex. I saw a newly bloomed flower in the morning. 

Ex. We usually visit new places in summer. 

Ex. They come to India in December every year. 

Ex. I will finish reading this book in a week. 

• By – to show a point of future time at which an action will be over. 

Ex. The work will be submitted by Monday morning. 

• For – to show the duration of action for mostly an incomplete action 

Ex. I have been working here for the last few years. 

• Since – to indicate the starting point of an action which has continued till the point of speaking 

Ex. I’m working with this firm since 2010.

• From – to show the starting point of the action started in the past and is over now 

Ex. He started working with us from 2015.

• Other Prepositions of time: After, during, till, before, between etc. 

2. Prepositions of position / place 

• In – to indicate a large space, big town or cities and countries 

Ex. I stay in Mumbai 

• At – to indicate smaller spaces or small towns, villages or suburbs of a city

Ex. I am waiting for you at the gate. 

• Among – to show the position surrounded by many 

Ex. She’s standing among the students. 

• Above – to show the position higher than something 

Ex. To get distinction in the examination, you need to score above 75%.

• Over – to indicate the vertically above position

Ex. The lamp was hanging over his head. 

• Below – to show the position lower than something 

Ex. He got hurt below the knees. 

• Under – to indicate the vertically below position

Ex. The box lying under the table. 

• Other Prepositions of place / position: between, from, to etc. 

3. Prepositions of direction

• To – to show the destination 

Ex. They went to the station. 

• Towards – to show the direction 

Ex. He pointed towards the tree. 

• Into – to show movement towards interior 

Ex. The train was going into the tunnel. 

• Out of – to show movement away from the interior 

Ex. He took the books out of the cupboard. 

• At – to indicate the point of aim

Ex. Don’t throw stones at the dog. 

• For - to show the direction of the movement 

Ex. He left for Delhi in the morning. 

• Against – to show two surfaces where one is using the other for support 

Ex. Keep the ladder against the wall. 

• Off – to show separation from a surface 

Ex. He fell off the roof. 

Other types of prepositions

a. Prepositions of agency or medium 

• At – She wanted to buy that bungalow at any cost. 

• By- We went by bus. 

• Through – We got the booking done through the app. 

• with – He opened the lock with a pin. 

• Without – He managed the work without any help. 

b. Prepositions of manner 

• By – He achieved success by working hard. 

• With – They worked together with great determination. 

c. Prepositions of reason or purpose 

• For – She is working for a good cause. 

• Of – They were tired of his excuses. 

• From – She felt sick from tiredness. 

• Through – They achieved success through hard work. 

d. Prepositions of possession 

• On – She is on our side. 

• Of – This statue is of 15th century. 

• With – He worked with great enthusiasm. 

Modal Auxiliaries

Modal Auxiliaries are the helping verbs which are always followed by the main verb in its original form and they support the meaning of the main verb. They have only one form and do not change the form as per the subject or tense. 

Modal Auxiliaries and their Uses / meanings 

1. Can • Ability

Ex. I can easily break these sticks.

• Possibility 

Ex. It can rain today as the sky is cloudy. 

 

2. Could • Ability in the past

Ex. I could easily walk 10 kms. at a stretch when I was young.

• Polite request in a question

Ex. Could you please give me some information?

3. May • Weak possibility

Ex. It may rain today even if it’s not so clouded.

• Permission

Ex. May I come in, ma’am? 

Ex. You may go now. 

• Wish / blessings

Ex. May all your dreams come true. 

• Offer to help

Ex. May I carry your bags for you?

4. Might • Weaker possibility

Ex. It might rain today even if it’s sunny out there because it’s the rainy season. 

5. Must • Obligation/ compulsion 

Ex. You must show your I card at the entry gate.

• Certainty

Ex. He must be busy now. 

6. Ought to • Moral obligation

Ex. We ought to respect the elders. 

7. Shall • Future time

Ex. I shall complete the work tomorrow.

• Formal suggestion in a question 

Ex. Shall we proceed to the next round of the competition? 

8. Should • Advice

Ex. You should take your medicines on time. 

9. Will • Future time

Ex. He will join us tomorrow.

• Certainty

Ex. It will rain today as the sky is heavily clouded. 

• Determination

Ex. I will complete my work in time. 

10 Would • Habitual action in the past

Ex. We would visit my grandparents every year during our summer holidays.

• Weakest possibility in a hopeless situation 

Ex. It would be possible only if all are ready to work together. 

Other modal auxiliaries 

Ex. Dare – Courage 

Mostly used with negative meaning in a question form. 

Ex. How dare you...?

Need – Necessity 

Use: Needn’t = was not needed but done 

Don’t / didn’t need = was not needed so wasn’t done 

Semi-modals

The main verbs which have the features of the modals

Ex. Used to, have to, able to, wish to, want to etc. 

Direct – Indirect speech

# Tense change from direct speech to indirect speech 

Direct speech = Indirect speech 

1 Present + Present = Present + Present

2 Present + Past = Present + Past 

3 Past + Present = Past + Past

4 Past + Past = Past + Past Perfect

# Rules as per the type of sentence 

5. Assertive sentences 

Say to = Tell (Reporting Verb) 

*Connecting word = that

Ex. He says, “I’m always happy.”

Ans. He says that he is always happy. 

6. Interrogative sentences 

Say = ask/ inquire / Question (Reporting Verbs) 

*Connecting words = verbal questions – if /whether 

No connecting word for ‘Wh’ questions 

*Rule– Convert the question form to statement in indirect speech. 

Ex. He said to her, “Why are you so worried today?”

Ans. He asked her why she was so worried that day. 

Ex. They said to him, “Are you hungry?”

Ans. They asked him if he was hungry. 

7. Imperative sentences 

Say = ask /order /request /command/ tell / suggest/ advise etc. (Reporting Verbs) 

Say to = tell

*Connecting word = to 

Ex. Rita said to her daughter, “Take your medicines on time.”

Ans. Rita advised her daughter to take her medicines on time.

Ex. Sam said to them, “Don’t worry about me.”

Ans. Sam told them not to worry about him. 

        IV.          Exclamatory sentences 

Say = exclaim /cry or utter in wonder etc. (Reporting Verbs) 

*Connecting word = that 

*Rule – Convert the exclamation into a statement using very/ a very

Ex. Sonia said, “What a beautiful painting it is!”

Ans. Sonia exclaimed that it was a very beautiful painting. 

Ex. Ronnie said, “How exciting the offer is!”

Ans. Ronnie exclaimed that the offer was very exciting. 

*Note: 1. Words expressing ‘nearness’ in direct speech are converted to words expressing ‘distance’ in Indirect speech. 

• Pronouns

This – That 

These – Those

• Adverbs 

Now – Then

Here – There 

Ago – Before 

Thus – So

So – that 

Today - That day

Tonight - That night  

Tomorrow – Next day / the day after 

Yesterday – Previous day / the day before 

Note: 2. Points to focus in conversion of direct and indirect speech

• Change in the reporting verb as per the situation. 

• Change in the tense of the main verb in the inverted commas if necessary. 

• Use of the connecting word if needed. 

• Change in the structure of the sentence given inside the inverted commas if needed. 

• Change in the pronouns, adverbs etc. If needed. 

Articles (A, An & The)

• Use of article ‘A’

Used before a singular common noun starting with a consonant sound, before a noun without any reference, special importance and is introduced for the first time in a given situation

Ex.1. A man was standing at the gate.

2. A flower bloomed in the garden. 

3. She visited a European country every year. 

4. They saw a one eyed man staring at them. 

5. The movie has a universal theme. 

6. She has a unique story idea. 

7. They are a united group of people. 

8. She is working for a UK based company. 

9. He saw a ewe grazing in the lawn. 

10. She wanted to see a unicorn. 

11. It was a useful article. 

13. He needed a one-rupee coin. 

• Use of article ‘An’

Used before a singular common noun starting with a vowel sound, before a noun without any reference, special importance and is introduced for the first time in a given situation

Ex. 1. He has an MBA degree. 

2. She is an honest woman. 

3. He is an LIC agent. 

4. He is an heir to a large fortune. 

5. We need an NOC from government. 

• Use of article ‘The’ 

a. Before someone /something particular, special, important or some earlier reference 

Ex. 1. The pen you gave me is really good. 

2. It was the moment; we were all waiting for. 

3. She is the friend I told you about. 

4. This is the book which changed my life. 

b. Before a noun which is only one in the given situation 

Ex. 1. The railway station in our town is always crowded. 

2. The manager of our company is out of town. 

3. The principal of our college has started many new activities. 

4. The prime minister will bring radical changes in the country. 

5. The market in our village does not have many shops. 

c. Before superlative adjective 

Ex. It is the best shopping website to buy electronic gadgets. 

d. Before the unique things 

Ex. The earth rotates around the sun. 

e. Before some proper nouns e.g. The names of most of the geographical phenomenon (mostly oceans, rivers, canals, deserts, group of islands, mountain ranges) Before the proper nouns which are originally descriptive nouns (usually phrases or group of small elements) 

Ex. 1. The Ganga is considered a holy river in India. 

2. The Himalayas are spread across many states. 

3. The Deccan plateau was considered to be earthquake proof. 

4.  The United States of America (USA) has become a super power after the fall of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR). 

5. The Infosys Foundation works in the field of education for poor children. 

6. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) plays a major role in the fuel oils supply to the world. 

7. The European Union has a common currency. 

f. Before the ordinal number followed by a noun. 

Ex. He was the first man to initiate major changes in society. 

g. Before the place where one is going for non obvious reasons. (Not the primary purpose)

Ex. 1. He is visiting the churches in Mumbai to study their architecture. 

2. She is going to the school to attend a PTA meeting. 

h. Before the proper noun which is used as a common noun

Ex. He is the Shakespeare of India. 

i. Before a singular or plural common noun indicating the class 

Ex. 1. The dog is a loyal animal. 

2. The elephants have good memory. 

          j. Before the adjectives which are given the role of a noun 

         Ex. He helped the poor. 

• No article situation

a) Before the abstract nouns, used in general sense (nouns which cannot be understood with the help of five senses) 

Ex. 1.  For me, × friendship is a valuable bond. 

2. We need to show × loyalty to him. 

3. We should not let × hatred take over our positivity. 

b) Before the proper nouns

Ex. We tried to contact × Sheetal but her phone was not reachable. 

c) Before uncountable/material nouns used in general sense (use measurements to count) 

Ex. 1. We need to add × sugar for more sweetness. 

2. You should avoid eating × salt. 

3. Use × oil if necessary. 

d) Before the noun indicating any place serving a certain purpose is visited for their primary purpose. (School, college, church, hospital, market, prison etc.) 

Ex. She went to × church to pray for her son. 

Synthesis of Sentences

Combination of two or more sentences into a simple, complex or compound sentence 

1. For a simple sentence 

• By using a non-finite verb to frame the sentence 

Ex. He jumped off the window. He ran away. 

Ans. Jumping off the window, he ran away. 

Ex. He completed her work. He wanted to help her. 

Ans. He completed her work in order to help her. 

Ex. I have an appointment with the doctor tomorrow. I need to get my check up done. 

Ans. I have an appointment with the doctor tomorrow to get my check up done. 

Ex. The doctor reached there. The patient was treated in time. 

Ans. The doctor having reached there, the patient was treated in time. 

Ex. The game was very interesting. We all enjoyed it a lot. 

Ans. The game being very interesting, we all enjoyed it a lot. 

• By using a noun or noun phrase in apposition 

Ex. She is my friend. Her name is Namrata. 

Ans. She is my friend, Namrata. 

Ex. I have seen Paris. It is one of the most beautiful cities in the world. 

Ans. I have seen Paris, one of the most beautiful cities in the world. 

• By using a prepositional phrase. 

Ex. He was planning to go for a movie. He didn’t want to take his younger sister with him.

Ans. He was planning to go for a movie without his younger sister.

• By using a word or phrase made from the key word of the other sentence. 

Ex. He achieved success. He deserved it. 

Ans. He achieved success deservedly. / He achieved well deserved success. 

2. For a compound sentence 

• By using a suitable coordinating conjunction 

Ex. And, not only... but also, for, so, but, still, yet, nevertheless, or, either...or, neither... nor, as well as, else etc. 

Ex. We went to market. We bought some vegetables. 

Ans. We went to market and bought some vegetables. 

3. For a complex sentence 

• By using a subordinate clause, made out of another sentence i.e., Noun, adjective or adverb clause 

Exercises 

1. He was worried about his job. I didn’t know about it. 

2. She has a good collection of paintings at home. The paintings are very expensive. 

3. He took his daughter to a garden. His daughter enjoyed a lot there.

4. I watched my favourite movie last night. I enjoyed it thoroughly. 

Answers 

1. I didn’t know that he was worried about his job. (Noun clause) 

2. At her home she has a good collection of paintings which are very expensive. (Adjective clause) 

3. He took his daughter to a garden where his daughter enjoyed a lot. (Adverb clause) 

4. Last night I watched my favourite movie which I enjoyed thoroughly. (Adjective clause)

Types of Sentences (AFFIRMATIVE – NEGATIVE)

• Use opposite words in conversion of sentences. 

• Words like hardly, almost, rarely, but, too, except, as soon as, in vain, unable, as well as etc. can be used when Opposite words cannot be used while framing an affirmative sentence. 

Ex. He is always on time. (Affirmative) 

Ans. He is never late. (Negative) 

Exercises for practice. (Rewrite as a negative/ affirmative sentence.)  

1. We wanted to stay back.  

2. He couldn’t break the wall. 

3. Not many students are there in the class. 

4. He’s not only smart but also kind.  

Answers: 

1. We didn’t want to leave. (Negative) 

2. He was unable to break the wall. (Affirmative)

3. There are only a few students in the class or There are hardly any students in the class. (Affirmative) 

4. He’s smart and/ as well as kind. (Affirmative) 

Types of Sentences (ASSERTIVE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERATIVE, EXCLAMATERY)

1. Assertive sentence/ Statement:

Used for giving information, describing or narrating something, conveying emotions 

Ex. We watched an interesting movie. 

Ex. He is interested in reading novels.

2. Interrogative sentence/ Question:

Used for asking information or creating dramatic effect 

Types: There are three types of interrogative sentences 

A. ‘Wh’ question

Starts with a ‘Wh’ word usually followed by the helping verb

Ex. What are you doing here? 

How many students are participating in the quiz? 

B. Verbal question /yes-no question

Starts with a helping verb

Ex. Are you interested in joining our team? 

C. Rhetorical question

A question where answer is not expected, it is used to give emotional or dramatic effect. It can be a verbal or ‘Wh’ question. The meaning of a rhetorical question can be given in an assertive sentence. 

Ex. Shouldn’t you pay attention?

Ans. You should pay attention.

Exercises:  Conversion of a rhetorical question into an assertive sentence

1. What is the use of helping these ungrateful people? 

2. Isn’t it your responsibility to take care of your health? 

3. Why should we waste so much time on social media? 

4. Who can deny their contribution in our success? 

Answers: 

1. There is no use of helping these ungrateful people. / Helping these ungrateful people is of no use.

2. It is your responsibility to take care of your health.

3. We should not waste so much time on social media.

4. No one can deny their contribution in our success.

3. Imperative sentence:

It starts with a main verb, the subject of the imperative sentence is, ‘you’, using the subject is avoided and the subject is called ‘understood you’. It is used for requests, commands or suggestions etc.

Ex. Start working on the project. 

Take a left turn after 2 km. 

Come in. 

Come here quickly. 

Please help me in finding a new job. 

4. Exclamatory sentence:

Used to show excitement or emotional expression like anger, fear, joy, surprise etc. 

Ex. What a beautiful picture it is! 

Ans. It is a very beautiful picture.

Ex. How impressive the work is! 

Ans. The work is very impressive.

Types of Sentences (SIMPLE, COMPOUND and COMPLEX)

1. Simple sentence – A sentence which has only one subject and predicate/ only one main clause 

Ex. He works hard on every aspect of the plan. 

2. Compound sentence – A sentence which has two or more main /principal clauses

Ex. He is new here and wants to know this place more. 

3. Complex sentence – A sentence which has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 

Ex. If you don’t work hard, you can not survive here. 

Conversions 

I. Simple –> Compound 

• Convert the non-finite verb into a finite verb in appropriate tense and frame a main clause. Use a suitable coordinating conjunction. 

Ex. You must work hard to create a place for yourself in the organisation. 

Ans. You must work hard and create a place for yourself in the organisation.

• Expand a word or phrase into a main clause and use a suitable coordinating conjunction 

Ex. In an exciting match, they won by 3 wickets. 

Ans. It was an exiting match and they won by 3 wickets. 

II. Compound –> Simple 

• Frame the sentence, using a non finite form of any of the main verbs. Remove the conjunction. Use any suitable phrase (Ex. In spite of..., in case of..., in the event of..., along with..., besides... etc.) or a suitable preposition (on, despite etc.) if necessary to retain the meaning. A negative word might be necessary to balance the meaning of the sentence. 

Ex. She completed her work and left for her home. 

Ans. Completing her work, she left for her home. 

Ex. She tried to help her friends but she could not. 

Ans. In spite of /Despite trying to help her friends, she could not. 

Ex. You need to complete the assignment today or you will fail in the examination. 

Ans. In case of not completing the assignment today, you will fail in the examination. 

Ex. He not only helped the boy to find shelter but also gave him some money. 

Ans. Besides / Along with helping the boy to find shelter, he also gave him some money. 

Ex. The solders arrived and the people were rescued. 

Ans. The soldiers having arrived, the people were rescued. /On arrival of the soldiers, the people were rescued. 

III. Simple –> complex 

• Expand any word or phrase into a subordinate clause 

Ex. A dangerous looking man was staring at them. 

Ans. A man who looked / was looking dangerous, was staring at them. 

• Use any suitable dummy subject and frame the sentence. 

Ex. I wanted to buy this book. 

Ans. This is the book I wanted to buy. /This is the book which I wanted to buy. 

IV. Complex –> Simple 

• Convert the subordinate clause into a phrase or a word. 

Ex. Great leaders have something in them that gives motivation to people. 

Ans. Great leaders have something in them, giving motivation to people. 

• Remove the dummy subject and rewrite the sentence. 

Ex. It is the consumer who pays for the advertisement. 

Ans. The consumer pays for the advertisement. 

• Convert any appropriate main verb into a non finite verb and frame the sentence. 

Ex. Birds use different sounds which indicate different emotions. 

Ans. Birds use different sounds indicating different emotions.

V. Compound = Complex 

• Interchange the conjunctions or use a connecting word with similar meaning as per the type of sentence. 

• Rearrange the sentence if necessary. 

• Use the following alternatives for reference. 

Coordinating conjunctions = Subordinating conjunctions / connecting words

And = As, when, as soon as, since, because, so... that, who, whom, that, which etc. 

But = Though, if, even if, than etc. 

Or = If... not, unless 

Ex. He was very good in sports and he has won the first prize in all the races. 

Ans. As/ Since he was very good in sports, he has won the first prize in all the races. 

Ex. They reached there as early as possible but they were late for the function. 

Ans. Though they reached there as early as possible, they were late for the function. 

Ex. You should come with us or you will miss out the fun. 

Ans. Unless you come with us, you will miss out the fun. 

Clauses

 

Clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb which is usually a part of a sentence. 

Types 

• Main Clause: 

• Subordinate Clause:

Subordinate Clause is further divided into the following types. 

1. Noun clause: 

i. As a subject: Ex. What he said was true.

ii. As an object: Ex. He says that he won’t leave me alone. 

iii. As an object of the preposition: Ex. There is no point in what you are doing. 

iv. As a complement of the verb: Ex. His greatest fear is that he may get arrested there. 

2. Adjective clause:

Ex. He’s the man whom I can trust completely. 

Ex. They are looking for a hero who will save them from their miseries.

Ex. He wants to play a role that will change his image. 

Ex. He is trying to get a job which will tap his true potential. 

3. Adverb clause:

i. Time: Ex. He will complete the work when the equipment is available. 

ii. Place: Ex. They should invest their money in a scheme where it will grow faster. 

iii. Purpose: Ex. I will give you guidelines so that you can complete the work on your own. 

iv. Reason / Cause: Ex. They worked hard because they wanted to achieve success. 

v. Condition: Ex. If it rains, we will have to cancel our plan. 

vi. Result: Ex. He is such a good man that all respect him. 

vii. Comparison: Ex. He is taller than his brother. 

viii. Concession: Ex. Though he was angry, he kept quiet. 

ix. Manner: Ex. She behaves as if she’s a queen. 

Non-finite Verbs: Infinitive, Gerund and Participles

o The main verbs which function as noun, adjective or adverb.

o They do not change their form as per the tense or subject.

o They do not indicate any particular tense.

• Infinitive

Form: V1 /original form of the main verb (with or without ‘to’)

Function: noun or adjective

Ex. 1. He loves to dance. (noun)

2. This is not the time to play. (Part of the noun phrase)

3. To err is human but to forgive is Devine. (noun)

4. Dry fruits are good to eat. (Part of the adjective phrase)

5. It is necessary to discuss things openly. (Part of the noun phrase)

6. It requires great strength to change the wrong habits. (Part of the noun phrase)

7. His greatest desire is to perform live. (Part of the noun phrase working as a complement)

8. The children were eager to go home. (Part of the adjective phrase)

• Gerund

Form: V4 / ‘- ing’ form of the main verb

Function: noun

Ex. 1. The beginning of the movie was promising but the ending was disappointing. (nouns)

2. Cheating will never be tolerated here. (noun)

3. He loves dancing. (noun)

4. We were prevented from playing cricket there. (Part of the noun phrase)

5. Marketing helps to increase the sale. (noun)

• Participles

 Types

I. Present participle

Form: V4 / ‘- ing’ form of the main verb

Function: adjective or adverb

Ex. 1. Working women need the skill of time management. (adjective)

2. Developing countries face many issues due to lack of sufficient resources. (adjective)

3. Disturbing facts can not be ignored. (adjective)

4. Thinking it’s safe, he crossed the road. (adverb)

5. Playing various games, he gained health. (adverb)

6. Playing cricket, he gained popularity. (adverb)

II. Past participle

Form: V3 /perfect form of the main verb

Function: adjective or adverb

Ex. 1. Advanced information will help you to perform well. (adjective)

2. Well connected network is the need of the day. (adjective)

3. Self created problems need self analysis to solve them. (adjective)

4. Recycled material will decrease the burden on the earth. (adjective)

5. A drunk man was driving the car. (adjective)

6. The documents should be signed by an authorised person. (adjective)

7. Armed forces were sent to rescue them. (adjective)

8. Fried food is not good for health. (adjective)

9. Driven by hunger, he stole a piece of bread. (adverb)

# Functions of noun: Subject, object, complement and object of the prepositional phrase (Ex. He’s interested in collecting stamps.)

# Exercises for conversion

1. He loves to play football. (Remove the Infinitive and rewrite the sentence.)

2. Working with you is an honour. (Remove the gerund and rewrite the sentence.)

3. Dealing with you is difficult. (Use an Infinitive and rewrite the sentence.)

#Answers

1. He loves playing football.

2. It is an honour to work with you. / To work with you is an honour.

3. It is difficult to deal with you.

Tenses

*Forms of Verbs

V1- main verb in original form or ‘- s/-es’ added to the verb with the 3rd person singular subject

V2- main verb in the 2nd form, past form or ‘– ed’ form

V3- main verb in the 3rd form, perfect form or ‘– en’ form

V4- main verb in the 4th form or ‘– ing’ form

*Structure and Uses

I. Simple Present Tense

Verb phrase - V1, no helping verb

Uses

1. For a state of being in present time

Ex. He is very happy today.

2. To mention regular /habitual activities in present time 

Ex. My mother helps me with my studies.

3. For the universal truths and quotes

Ex. The sun gives us light and warmth.

4. For a fixed future event

Ex. The match starts at 5 o’clock tomorrow.

II. Present Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – am/is/are + V4

Uses

1. For an action in progress at the time of speaking

Ex. I am writing an essay.

2. For any action happening temporarily in the present time

Ex. I am learning various new skills these days.

3. For a planned future action

Ex. I am visiting that site in the evening.

III. Present Perfect Tense

Verb phrase – have/ has + V3

Uses:

1. For a past action which has created an impact or which is relevant in the present as well (an experience)

Ex. I have watched that movie many times.

2. For a recently completed activity

Ex. I have spoken to her about it today in the morning.

3. For an action, started in the past and continued till the moment of speaking

Ex. I have not seen him since morning.

IV. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

*Verb phrase – have/has +been +V4

*Uses:

#For an action which has started in the past, is going on at the moment and may continue

Ex. I have been working on the project since January.

Ex. Someone has been stealing my money.

V. Simple Past Tense

Verb phrase - V2, no helping verb

Uses:

1. For a fully completed activity in the past

Ex. He danced with great enthusiasm.

2. For the recent past action out of the two past activities

Ex. When he reached there, most of the guests had already arrived at the venue.

VI. Past Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – was /were + V4

Uses:

#For the activity in progress for some time period in the past

Ex. He was helping her in her project.

VII. Past Perfect Tense

Verb phrase – had + V3

Uses:

1. For an action which got over long ago

Ex. We had visited many places to find a particular venue for the function.

2. For the previous past action out of the two past activities

Ex. The train had left when I entered the station.

VIII. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – had + been + V4

Uses:

1. For the previous past action which was in progress for some time period, in case of two past actions

Ex. I was very nervous about my first live performance even though I had been practicing for it for the last few months.

2. To show the middle point of action in the past

Ex. I had been working with them for a few years at that time.

IX. Simple Future Tense

Verb phrase – shall / will +V1

Uses:

#For an action which is to take place in future

Ex. They will join us tomorrow.

Ex. I shall work on the solutions.

X. Future Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – shall /will + be + V4

Uses:

1. For a future activity which will certainly happen /strongly possible

Ex. My mother will be waiting for me.

2. For a future action which will be going on for some time period

Ex. He will be working on the project for the next couple of weeks.

XI. Future Perfect Tense

Verb phrase – shall / will +have + V3

Uses:

1. For an action which will get completed at a certain time in future

Ex. I shall have completed this assignment by tomorrow.

2. For the previous action in case of two future actions happening in connection

Ex. I shall have escaped before you catch me.

XII. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – shall /will + have + been + V4

Uses:

1. To mention the middle point of an action in future

Ex. They will have been working on the project in 2030.

Sequence of tenses

>Present Perfect Continuous + Present Perfect

Ex. I have been working on my assignment from the last couple of days but I have not finished it yet.

>Present Perfect +Simple Present

Ex. I have not watched that movie yet but I am interested in watching it.

>Past Perfect + Simple Past

Ex. They had already handled the situation successfully when we reached there to help them.

>Past Perfect Continuous + Simple Past

Ex. We had been struggling for a long time when some people finally came to help us.

>Future Perfect + Simple Present

Ex. They will have completed their work before we go to pick them up.

List of Grammar Topics considered for HSC Board Exam

• Tenses

• Non-finite Verbs

• Clauses

• Types of sentences

• Synthesis of sentences

• Modal Auxiliaries

• Articles

• Direct – Indirect speech

• Prepositions

• Active – Passive voice

• Degrees of comparison

• Transformation of sentences 

(For Activities based on transformation and corrections of errors)

o Use of ‘too’ and ‘enough’

o Frame ‘wh’ question

o Change part of speech of the word in sentence

o Use of ‘as well as’, ‘either – or’, ‘not only – but also’

o If not – unless

o Add a question tag

• Grammar topics useful for correction of the errors